LCD shutter glasses

LCD shutter glasses are glasses used in conjunction with computers or TV screens to create the illusion of a three dimensional image, an example of stereoscopy. Glass containing liquid crystal and a polarizing filter has the property that it becomes dark when voltage is applied, but otherwise is transparent. A pair of eyeglasses can be made using this material and connected to a computer video card. The video card alternately darkens over one eye, and then the other, in synchronization with the refresh rate of the monitor, while the monitor alternately displays different perspectives for each eye. This is called Alternate-frame sequencing. At sufficiently high refresh rates, the viewer's visual system does not notice the flickering, each eye receives a different image, and the effect is achieved.

The problems associated are the cost for the additional equipment (typically up to US$100), and that the flickering can be noticeable if the refresh rate is not sufficiently high, as each eye is effectively receiving only half of the monitor's actual refresh rate. As with other single image methods the brightness is considerably diminished.

Another possible effect is "ghosting". Since the opaque phase of the LC still permits a small amount of light to transmit, some users experience secondary "ghost" images from the alternate channel. This effect can be exacerbated by persistence effects in the phosphors of the CRT, causing images to "bleed" over into the other channel.

Until recently, the method only worked with CRT monitors; some modern flat-panel monitors now support high enough refresh rates to work with some LC shutter systems.

Another potential use of shutter glasses is to allow private viewing of a publicly observable screen (e.g. a laptop on a train). The display could flicker between the normal display and the normal display's photographic negative image. To the unaided eye this screen would appear a blank grey. The screen, viewed via shutter glasses blocking out the negative image, would appear to show only the private image.[citation needed]


Usage limitations
Because shutter glasses require a screen refresh rate twice that of a normal display, extremely high performance graphics technology is required to support it. Most inexpensive products advertised as being shutter-glasses compatible are only capable of 120Hz refresh, equivalent to the industry minimum of 60 frames per second. But on a standard CRT, 60 Hz is slightly too slow and the flickering is often readily apparent when looking away and the screen is in the periphery of the visual field. Long-term viewing of 60 Hz refresh on a CRT can lead to headaches and eye strain.

The slightly visible CRT flicker at 60 Hz diminishes as the refresh is increased, with 85 Hz commonly being a commonly preferred choice for standard CRTs. However, the equivalent shutter-glasses refresh rate would be 170 Hz, which almost no equipment is capable of achieving. Typically 150 Hz is as high as most video cards will go, which is equivalent to 75 Hz on a normal CRT.


Compatible DLP hardware
DLP projectors are commonly available in two designs. The less expensive is referred to as a one-chip DLP and uses a single light-modulating DMD that only reflects varying shades of gray. To achieve a color display, a transparent color wheel with different colored regions spins in the light path. The more expensive version is a three-chip DLP with three separate DMD arrays, each with its own dedicated red, green, and blue color filter. While the three-chip DLP is ideal for use with shutter-glasses, a three-chip DLP can easily cost more than US$4000, pushing it well out of reach of the computer hobbyist.

A one-chip DLP can be used with shutter-glasses, but with limitations. The rotational rate of the color wheel is often two to three revolutions per video frame, up to about 85 Hz, with the DMD flashing multiple patterns of color that seem to blend together to the observer's eye. When a one-chip DLP is pressed into service running at a framerate of 120 Hz or more, the rotational rate of the color wheel must be limited to prevent damage to projector.

In normal service at 85 Hz, a 3x color wheel rotates 255 times per second, or 15,300 RPM. If this same one-chip projector were to operate at full speed at 120 Hz, the color wheel would be spinning at 21,600 RPM, far outside the design limits for the projector. Rather than rotating at the normal three times per frame, the wheel must drop back to turn only two revolutions per frame (14,400 RPM) to stay within safe operational parameters. This results in a visibly degraded image with incorrect colors and/or incorrect brightness.


Compatible LCD hardware
Liquid crystal displays have traditionally been slow to change from one polarization state to another. Users of early 1990s laptops are familiar with the smearing and blurring that occurs when something moves too fast for the LCD to keep up. This smearing can result in a completely unviewable image when using shutter glasses.

LCD technology is not usually rated by frames per second but rather the time it takes to transition from darkness to brightness and back to darkness, in milliseconds. In order to achieve an equivalent minimum refresh rate of 120 Hz, an LCD must be able to transition at a speed of not more than 8.33 ms.

However because pixel transition speed has become a strong selling point of LCD monitors, marketing hype has unfortunately obscured these speed-of-transition specifications with tortuous qualifying statements that make inadequate technology appear to be better than it really is (see PMPO for an example such marketing distortions). While the average person attempting to buy a high quality LCD for normal home use might not notice these minor performance differences, a slowly transitioning LCD can have a severely negative impact on usability with shutter glasses. For stereoscopic applications, it is important that the LCD be truly capable of what is being claimed.

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Types Of Glasses

Seattle skyline as seen through a corrective lens, showing the effect of refraction.
Corrective lenses modify the focal length of the eye to alleviate the effects of nearsightedness (myopia), farsightedness (hyperopia) or astigmatism. As people age, the eye's crystalline lens loses elasticity, resulting in presbyopia, which limits their ability to change focus.

The power of a lens is generally measured in diopters. Over-the-counter reading glasses are typically rated at +1.00 to +4.00 diopters. Glasses correcting for myopia will have negative diopter strengths. Lenses made to conform to the prescription of an ophthalmologist or optometrist are called prescription lenses and are used to make prescription glasses, which are then verified correct using a professional lensmeter.


Safety
Safety glasses are usually made with shatter-resistant plastic lenses to protect the eye from flying debris. Although safety lenses may be constructed from a variety of materials of various impact resistance, certain standards suggest that they maintain a minimum 1 millimeter thickness at the thinnest point, regardless of material. Safety glasses can vary in the level of protection they provide. For example, those used in medicine may be expected to protect against blood splatter while safety glasses in a factory might have stronger lenses and a stronger frame with additional shields at the temples. The lenses of safety glasses can also be shaped for correction.


Safety glasses with side shields
The American National Standards Institute has established standard ANSI Z87.1 for safety glasses in the United States, and similar standards have been established elsewhere.

OSHA provides guidance on the type of safety eyewear that should be used for a particular application.

Some safety glasses are designed to fit over corrective glasses or sunglasses. They may provide less eye protection than goggles or other forms of eye protection, but their light weight increases the likelihood that they will actually be used. Modern safety glasses tend to be given a more stylish design in order to encourage their use. Corrective glasses with plastic lenses can be used in the place of safety glasses in many environments; this is one advantage that they have over contact lenses.

There are also safety glasses for welding, which are styled like wraparound sunglasses, but with much darker lenses, for use in welding where a full sized welding helmet is inconvenient or uncomfortable. These are often called "flash goggles", because they provide protection from welding flash.

Worker safety eyewear is available in various lens colors and/or with coatings to protect or enable eyesight in different lighting conditions, particularly when outdoors.

Nylon frames are usually used for protection eyewear for sports because of their lightweight and flexible properties. They are able to bend slightly and return to their original shape instead of breaking when pressure is applied to them. Nylon frames can become very brittle with age and they can be difficult to adjust.


Sunglasses
Sunglasses may be made with either prescription or non-prescription lenses that are darkened to provide protection against bright visible and possibly ultraviolet light.

Glasses with photosensitive lenses, called photochromic lenses, become darker in the presence of UV light. Unfortunately, many car windshields block the passage of UV light, making photochromic lenses less effective whilst driving on bright days. Still, they offer the convenience of not having to carry both clear glasses and sunglasses to those who frequently go indoors and outdoors during the course of a day. Recent technology has developed specialized photochromic lenses that work behind the windshield of the car, as well as outside of the car.

Light polarization is an added feature that can be applied to sunglass lenses. Polarization filters remove horizontally polarized rays of light, which can cause glare. Popular among fishermen and hunters, polarized sunglasses allow wearers to see into water when normally glare or reflected light would be seen. Polarized sunglasses may present some difficulties for pilots since reflections from water and other structures often used to gauge altitude may be removed, or instrument readings on liquid crystal displays may be blocked.

Yellow lenses are commonly used by golfers and shooters for their contrast enhancement and depth perception properties. Brown lenses are also common among golfers, but cause color distortion. Blue, purple, and green lenses offer no real benefits to vision enhancement and are mainly cosmetic. Some sunglasses with interchangeable lenses have optional clear lenses to protect the eyes during low light or night time activities and a colored lens with UV protection for times where sun protection is needed. Debate exists as to whether "blue blocking" or amber tinted lenses have a protective effect.

Sunglasses are often worn just for aesthetic purposes, or simply to hide the eyes. Examples of sunglasses that were popular for these reasons include teashades and mirrorshades.


Special

Swimming goggles.
The illusion of three dimensions on a two dimensional surface can be created by providing each eye with different visual information. Classic 3D glasses create the illusion of three dimensions when viewing specially prepared images. The classic 3D glasses have one red lens and one blue lens. 3D glasses made of cardboard and plastic are distributed at 3D movies. Another kind of 3D glasses uses polarized filters, with one lens polarized vertically and the other horizontally, with the two images required for stereo vision polarized the same way. Polarized 3D glasses allow for color 3D, while the red-blue lenses produce a dull black-and-white picture with red and blue fringes.

One kind of electronic 3D spectacles uses electronic shutters, while virtual reality glasses and helmets have separate video screens for each eye.


Variations
Magnifying lenses which are used to treat mild hyperopia and presbyopia, normally referred to as reading glasses, can be bought off the shelf. Most glasses are made to an individual prescription, based on degree of myopia or hyperopia combined with astigmatism if applicable. Lenses can be ground to specific prescriptions, but in some cases standard off-the-shelf prescriptions suffice, though they require custom fitting to particular frames.

As people age, their ability to focus is lessened and many decide to use multiple-focus lenses, bifocal or even trifocal to cover all the situations in which they use their sight. Traditional multifocal lenses have two or three distinct horizontal viewing areas, each requiring a conscious effort of refocusing. Some modern multifocal lenses, such as Progressive lenses (known as "no-line bifocals"), give a smooth transition between these different focal points, unnoticeable by most wearers, while other glasses have lenses specifically intended for use with computer monitors at a fixed distance. People may have several pairs of glasses, one for each task or distance, with specific glasses for reading, computer use, television watching, and writing.


Rimless
Three-piece rimless and semi-rimless glasses are common variations that differ from regular glasses in that their frames do not completely encircle the lenses. Three-piece rimless glasses have no frame around the lenses, and the bridge and temples are mounted directly onto the lenses. Semi-rimless (or half-rimless) glasses have a frame that only partially encircles the lenses (commonly the top portion), which are held in place most often by high strength nylon wire.[14] A rare and currently non commercial variation are rimless and frameless glasses attached to a piercing at the bridge of a wearers nose.[15] Such glasses have the visual look of the pince-nez.


Glazing
Spectacle lenses are edged into the frame's rim using glazing machines operated by ophthalmic technicians. The edging process begins with a trace being taken of the frame's eye shape. In earlier days the trace was replicated onto a plastic pattern called a Former. Nowadays the process is patternless and the shape is sent to the edger electronically.

The lens, in the form of a round uncut, is positioned in the correct manner to match the prescription and a block is stuck to the lens and that block fits into a chuck in the edging machine. A diamond coated wheel spins as the edger replicates the frame's eye-shape to the uncut lens. A 'v' bevel is applied to allow the edge of the lens to fit into the frame rim.

Fashion

United States senator Barry Goldwater in Horn-rimmed glasses.
Glasses can be a major part of personal expression, from the extravagance of Elton John and Dame Edna Everage, to Groucho Marx and Buddy Holly.

For some celebrities, glasses form part of their identity. United States Senator Barry Goldwater continued to wear lensless horn-rimmed spectacles after being fitted with contact lenses because he was not recognizable without his trademark glasses. British soap star Anne Kirkbride had the same problem: her character on Coronation Street, Deirdre Barlow, became so well-known for her big frames that she was expected to wear them at social gatherings and in international tours, even though Kirkbride has always worn contact lenses. Drew Carey continued to wear glasses for the same reason after getting corrective laser eye surgery. British comedic actor Eric Sykes, who became profoundly deaf as an adult, wears glasses that contain no lenses; they are actually a bone-conducting hearing aid. Masaharu Morimoto wears glasses to separate his professional persona as a chef from his stage persona as Iron Chef Japanese. John Lennon wore his round-lens 'Windsor' spectacles from some of his time with the Beatles to his murder in 1980. The rock band Weezer is known for some of the members wearing thick-rimmed glasses.

Steve Wozniak's "Apple Glasses"
In popular culture, glasses were all the disguise Superman and Wonder Woman needed to hide in plain view as alter egos Clark Kent and Diana Prince, respectively. An example of halo effect is seen in the stereotype that those who wear glasses are intelligent or, especially in teen culture, even geeks and nerds. Some people who find that wearing glasses may look nerdy turn to contact lenses or laser eye surgery, especially under peer pressure.

Another unpopular aspect of glasses is their inconvenience. Even through the creation of light frames, such as those made of titanium, very flexible frames, and new lens materials and optical coatings, glasses can still cause problems during rigorous sports. The lenses can become greasy or trap vapour when eating hot food, swimming, walking in rain or rapid temperature changes (such as walking into a warm building from cold temperatures outside), reducing visibility significantly. Scraping, fracturing, or breakage of the lenses require time-consuming and costly professional repair, though modern plastic lenses are almost indestructible and very scratch-resistant.

Apple, Inc. co-founder Steve Wozniak had a pair of eyeglasses made with lenses in the shape of the well-known Apple logo. The lenses were made from a block of acrylic, laminated from layers in the usual rainbow colors, and machined into the appropriate outline, with a custom-made frame in the same shape. They were made by a Silicon Valley optician.

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Glasses

Glasses, also called eyeglasses or spectacles, are frames bearing lenses worn in front of the eyes, normally for vision correction, eye protection, or for protection from UV rays.

Modern glasses are typically supported by pads on the bridge of the nose and by temples placed over the ears. Historical types include the pince-nez, monocle, and lorgnette.

Eyeglass frames are commonly made from metal or plastic. Lenses were originally made from glass, but many are now made from various types of metal plastic, including CR-39 and polycarbonate. These materials reduce the danger of breakage and weigh less than glass lenses. Some plastics also have more advantageous optical properties than glass, such as better transmission of visible light and greater absorption of ultraviolet light.[1] Some plastics have a greater index of refraction than most types of glass; this is useful in the making of corrective lenses shaped to correct various vision abnormalities such as myopia, allowing thinner lenses for a given prescription. Newer plastic lenses, called izon, can also correct for the higher order aberrations that naturally occur in the surface of our eye. These lenses create sharper vision and help with the halos, starbursts, and comet-tails often associated with night time driving glare. Wavefront guided LASIK surgery also corrects for the higher order aberrations.


French Empire gilt scissors glasses c.1805
Scratch-resistant coatings can be applied to most plastic lenses giving them similar scratch resistance to glass. Hydrophobic coatings designed to ease cleaning are also available, as are anti-reflective coatings intended to reduce glare, improve night vision and make the wearer's eyes more visible.[2]

CR-39 lenses are the most common plastic lenses due to their low weight, high scratch resistance, and low transparency for ultra violet and infrared radiation. Polycarbonate and Trivex lenses are the lightest and most shatter-resistant, making them the best for impact protection,[1] yet offer poor optics due to high dispersion, and having a low Abbe number of 31.

Not all glasses are designed solely for vision correction but are worn for protection, viewing visual information (such as stereoscopy) or simply just for aesthetic or fashion values. Safety glasses are a kind of eye protection against flying debris or against visible and near visible light or radiation. Sunglasses allow better vision in bright daylight, and may protect against damage from high levels of ultraviolet light.

History

Precursors

Detail of a portrait of Hugh de Provence, painted by Tomaso da Modena in 1352
The earliest historical reference to magnification dates back to ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs in the 8th century BC, which depict "simple glass meniscal lenses". The earliest written record of magnification dates back to the 1st century AD, when Seneca the Younger, a tutor of Emperor Nero, wrote: "Letters, however small and indistinct, are seen enlarged and more clearly through a globe of glass filled with water".[3] Emperor Nero is also said to have watched the gladiatorial games using an emerald as a corrective lens.[4]

Corrective lenses were said to be used by Abbas Ibn Firnas in the 9th century,[5] who had devised a way to produce very clear glass. These glasses could be shaped and polished into round rocks used for viewing and were known as reading stones. The earliest evidence of "a magnifying device, a convex lens forming a magnified image," dates back the Book of Optics published by Alhazen in 1021. Its translation into Latin in the 12th century was instrumental to the invention of eyeglasses in 13th century Italy.[3]

Sunglasses, in the form of flat panes of smoky quartz, protected the eyes from glare and were used in China in the 12th century or possibly earlier. However, they did not offer any corrective powers.[6]

Invention of eyeglasses
Around 1284 in Italy, Salvino D'Armate is credited with inventing the first wearable eye glasses.[7] The earliest pictorial evidence for the use of eyeglasses, however, is Tomaso da Modena's 1352 portrait of the cardinal Hugh de Provence reading in a scriptorium. Another early example would be a depiction of eyeglasses found north of the Alpes in an altarpiece of the church of Bad Wildungen, Germany, in 1403.

Many theories abound for who should be credited for the invention of traditional eyeglasses. In 1676, Francesco Redi, a professor of medicine at the University of Pisa, wrote that he possessed a 1289 manuscript whose author complains that he would be unable to read or write were it not for the recent invention of glasses. He also produced a record of a sermon given in 1305, in which the speaker, a Dominican monk named Fra Giordano da Rivalto, remarked that glasses had been invented less than twenty years previously, and that he had met the inventor. Based on this evidence, Redi credited another Dominican monk, Fra Alessandro da Spina of Pisa, with the re-invention of glasses after their original inventor kept them a secret, a claim contained in da Spina's obituary record.[8]

Other stories, possibly legendary, credit Roger Bacon with the invention. Bacon is known to have made one of the first recorded references to the magnifying properties of lenses in 1262,[9] though this was predated by Alhazen's Book of Optics in 1021.[3] Bacon's treatise De iride ("On the Rainbow"), which was written while he was a student of Robert Grosseteste, no later than 1235, mentions using optics to "read the smallest letters at incredible distances". While the exact date and inventor may be forever disputed, it is almost certainly clear that spectacles were invented between 1280 and 1300 in Italy.[1]

These early spectacles had convex lenses that could correct both hyperopia (farsightedness), and the presbyopia that commonly develops as a symptom of aging. Nicholas of Cusa is believed to have discovered the benefits of concave lens in the treatment of myopia (nearsightedness). However, it was not until 1604 that Johannes Kepler published in his treatise on optics and astronomy, the first correct explanation as to why convex and concave lenses could correct presbyopia and myopia.

Later developments

A portrait of Francisco de Quevedo y Villegas, 1580–1645
The American scientist Benjamin Franklin, who suffered from both myopia and presbyopia, invented bifocals in 1784 to avoid having to regularly switch between two pairs of glasses.[10] The first lenses for correcting astigmatism were constructed by the British astronomer George Airy in 1825.[10]

Over time, the construction of spectacle frames also evolved. Early eyepieces were designed to be either held in place by hand or by exerting pressure on the nose (pince-nez). Girolamo Savonarola suggested that eyepieces could be held in place by a ribbon passed over the wearer's head, this in turn secured by the weight of a hat. The modern style of glasses, held by temples passing over the ears, was developed in 1727 by the British optician Edward Scarlett. These designs were not immediately successful, however, and various styles with attached handles such as "scissors-glasses" and lorgnettes remained fashionable throughout the 18th and into the early 19th century.

In the early 20th century, Moritz von Rohr at Zeiss (with the assistance of H. Boegehold and A. Sonnefeld[11]), developed the Zeiss Punktal spherical point-focus lenses that dominated the eyeglass lens field for many years.

Despite the increasing popularity of contact lenses and laser corrective eye surgery, glasses remain very common as their technology has improved. For instance, it is now possible to purchase frames made of special memory metal alloys that return to their correct shape after being bent. Other frames have spring-loaded hinges. Either of these designs offers dramatically better ability to withstand the stresses of daily wear and the occasional accident. Modern frames are also often made from strong, light-weight materials such as titanium alloys, which were not available in earlier times.

On May 1, 1992 the United States Federal Trade Commission declared (section 456.2) that optometrists be required to provide the patient with a complete prescription immediately following an eye exam, effectively giving the patient the choice of where to purchase their glasses.[12] The result was greater competition between the glasses manufacturers and thus lower prices for consumers. This trend has been accelerated by the proliferation of Internet technology, giving consumers the chance to bypass traditional distribution channels and buy glasses directly from the manufacturers.

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Goggles

Watersport goggles
Goggles or safety glasses are forms of protective eyewear that usually enclose or protect the eye area in order to prevent particulates, water or chemicals from striking the eyes. They are used in chemistry laboratories and in woodworking. They are often used in snow sports as well, and in swimming. Goggles are often worn when using power tools such as drills or chainsaws to prevent flying particles from damaging the eyes. Many types of goggles are available as prescription goggles for those with vision problems.


History
The Eskimos carved goggles from caribou antler, as well as wood and shell, to help prevent snow blindness. The goggles were curved to fit the user's face and had a large groove cut in the back to allow for the nose. A long thin slit was cut through the goggles to allow in a small amount of light, diminishing subsequent ultraviolet rays. The goggles were held to the head by a cord made of caribou sinew.



Types
The requirements for goggles varies depending on the use. Some examples:

Cold weather: Most modern cold-weather goggles have two layers of lens to prevent the interior from becoming "foggy". With only a single lens, the interior water vapor condenses onto the lens because the lens is colder than the vapor, although anti-fog agents can be used. The reasoning behind dual layer lens is that the inner lens will be warm while the outer lens will be cold. As long as the temperature of the inner lens is close to that of the interior water vapor, the vapor should not condense. However, if water vapor gets between the layers of the lens, condensation can occur between the lenses and is almost impossible to get rid of; thus, properly constructed and maintained dual-layer lenses should be air-tight to prevent water vapor from getting in between the lenses.

Swimming: Must be watertight to prevent water, such as salt water when swimming in the ocean, or chlorinated water when swimming in a pool, from irritating the eyes or blurring vision. Allows swimmers to see clearly underwater. They will not be usable more than a few feet underwater, because the water pressure will press them tightly against the face. Examples of these include the Swedish goggles.

Power tools: Must be made of an unbreakable material that prevents chunks of metal, wood, plastic, concrete, and so on from hitting or piercing the eye. Usually has some sort of ventilation to prevent sweat from building up inside the goggles and fogging the surface.

Blowtorch goggles: These protect the eyes from glare and flying sparks and hot metal splashes while using or near as blowtorch. They are not dark enough for arc welding.

Motorcycle riding and other open-air activities: Prevents insects, dust, and so on from hitting the eyes.

Laboratory and research: Combines impact resistance with side shields to prevent chemical splashes reaching the eyes. May also include laser protection which would be covered by EN 207 (Europe) and ANSI Z 136 (United States). Examples of these include red adaptation goggles.

Racquetball: Protect the eyes from racquets swinging in an enclosed area and from impact from hard rubber ball.

Winter sports: Protect the eyes from glare and from icy particles flying up from the ground.

Astronomy and meteorology: dark adaptor goggles are used before going outside at night, in order to help the eyes adapt to the dark.

Basketball: Several NBA players have worn goggles during play, including Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, James Worthy, Horace Grant, Kurt Rambis and Amare Stoudemire; they prevent a fellow player from scratching or hitting the eyes when trying to grab the basketball.

Aviation: In open cockpit aircraft, similar to biplanes, aviators, such as Amelia Earhart and Charles Kingsford Smith, would wear goggles to help protect from the wind and are still in use today. Examples of these include the AN-6530 goggles.

Virtual reality: A virtual reality headset, sometimes called "goggles", is a wrap-around visual interface to display computer output. Commonly the computer display information is presented as a three-dimensional representation of real-world environments.


Fashion
Goggles are often worn as a fashion statement in certain subcultures, most often as part of the cybergoth subculture. They are usually worn over the eyes or up on the forehead to secure 'falls': a type of long, often brightly-coloured, synthetic hairpiece. Fans of the Steampunk genre or subculture also frequently wear steampunk-styled goggles, particularly when performing in a live action role-playing game.

Goggles are also frequently used by anime and manga characters as a fashion statement. Several characters in the anime Digimon wear goggles, as each 'leader' of the series wears goggles. Other notable characters are Matt from Death Note and Usopp from One Piece.


Popular culture
Goggles are part of a meme stemming from a quote from the Radioactive Man episode of The Simpsons where Rainier Wolfcastle is faced with a tidal wave of sulfuric acid while filming a movie, his only provided safety precaution a pair of rubber safety goggles intended to deflect small amounts of acid. When the scene goes horribly wrong, he is swept away, his suit and prop goggles dissolving, spurring him to yell, "My eyes! The goggles do nothing!"

Non-human

Bullfighting horse wearing eye protection
Goggles are available for horses used in speed sports such as horse racing.[2] In some traditions of horse mounted bullfighting, the horse may wear a protective cloth over its eyes.

Goggles adapted for use by dogs are marketed under the trademark Doggles by California-based Doggles, LLC. Unlike other eye protection marketed for dogs, Doggles are designed to protect from wind and foreign objects in addition to UV light.

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GI glasses

GI glasses are eyeglasses issued by the American military to its service members. Dysphemisms for them include the most common birth control glasses (alternatively birth control goggles) sometimes shortened as BC goggles/glasses, BCGs or simply BCs.

The glasses are relatively-thick frames made of brown translucent plastic, with a thin metal wire extending down the center of each of the earpieces. The shape of the corrective lenses is nearly rectangular, with rounded edges, and a slight diagonal angle adjacent to the integrated nose pieces. This design reflects a specification for durability at the lowest possible cost. There are two designs available for female and male soldiers that require prescription eye wear.

They are large enough to provide a wide field of vision, but can be so large as to interfere with the sights of a rifle under certain circumstances. Waterproof, they are also impact resistant and satisfy many eye protection requirements.

GI glasses are issued at government expense to new recruits at basic training, boot camp, or Officer Candidate Schools in the United States military, and are the mandatory eye wear for any recruit who requires corrective lenses. When entering recruit training, servicemembers may wear civilian glasses until government-issued ones are assigned. Contact lenses are never permissible for these exercises. After basic training, soldiers are permitted to wear civilian glasses provided they are conservative in design and color. The military offers annual replacements for those who qualify, and personnel may request the government issued glasses in addition to several varieties of more attractive eyeware, in clear and tinted lenses, as well as prescription gas mask inserts and inserts for government-funded ballistic eyeware.

Origin of the nickname
BCGs is a nickname given to the glasses because service members believe that while wearing BCG's, it is impossible to attract the opposite sex because of their unflattering appearance.

It is believed that this terminology originated in the form "BC's" in the Navy in 1981. The reason for this moniker was that "it would be impossible to get a date while wearing these glasses."

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Mirrored sunglasses

Mirror sunglasses
Mirrored sunglasses are sunglasses with a reflective optical coating (called a mirror coating or flash coating) on the outside of the lenses to make them appear like small mirrors. The lenses typically give the wearer's vision a brown or grey tint. The mirror coating decreases the amount of light passing through the tinted lens by a further 10–60%, making it especially useful for conditions of sand, water, snow, and higher altitudes. From a psychological perspective, mirrorshades are effective in preventing eye contact.

In principle, mirrorshades act as one-way mirrors.

The color of the mirror coating is independent of the tint of the lenses. It is determined by the thickness and structure of the layer.

Their popularity with police officers in the United States has earned them the nickname "cop shades". The two most popular styles for these are dual lenses set in metal frames (which are often confused with Aviators), and "Wraparound" (a single, smooth, semi-circular lense that covers both eyes and much of the same area of the face covered by protective goggles, combined with a minimal plastic frame and single piece of plastic serving as a nosepad). Wraparound sunglasses are also quite popular in the world of extreme sports.

The simplest version of a mirror coating is a single layer of a deposited thin film of a suitable metal, usually prepared by ion beam deposition, sputter deposition or vapor deposition. However, this kind of coating is very prone to scratching, and degrades, especially in a corrosive environment like salt water.

More modern reflective coatings usually have several alternating layers of specific thickness, made of dielectric materials and sometimes metals. The metal layer can be made from eg. titanium, nickel or chromium, or from an alloy like Nichrome or Inconel, and has thickness ranging from 0.5 to 9 nanometers. The dielectric layer comprises a suitable oxide, eg. chromium oxide, silicon dioxide, or titanium dioxide; its thickness determines the reflective properties of the resulting dielectric mirror. The manufacturing process is similar to making anti-reflective coating, and mirror and antireflective coatings can be deposited in the same sequence of operations.

Characters in cyberpunk frequently wear mirrorshades. They are also popular among US police officers, especially Highway Patrolmen. Many characters in the movie series The Matrix exclusively wear mirrored sunglasses, Morpheus in particular.

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Fashion Sunglasses

A girl wearing oversized sunglasses
Oversized sunglasses ,which were fashionable in the 1980s, are now often used for humorous purposes, and look like a pair of sunglasses that is extremely large for the face. They usually come in bright colors with colored lenses and can be purchased cheaply.

Over recent years however, moderately oversized sunglasses have become a fashion trend. There are many variations, such as the 'Onassis', discussed below, and Dior white sunglasses.


Onassis glasses
Onassis glasses or "Jackie O's" are very large sunglasses worn by women. This style of sunglasses is said to mimic the kind most famously worn by Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis in the 1960s. The glasses continue to be popular with women, and celebrities may use these to hide from paparazzi.


Mirrorshades
Mirrorshades are sunglasses with a mirrored coating on the surface. Their popularity with police officers in the United States has earned them the nickname "cop shades". The two most popular styles for these are dual lenses set in metal frames (which are often confused with Aviators), and "Wraparound" (a single, smooth, semi-circular lens that covers both eyes and much of the same area of the face covered by protective goggles, combined with a minimal plastic frame and single piece of plastic serving as a nosepiece). Wraparound sunglasses are also quite popular in the world of extreme sports.


Aviators

Ray-Ban Aviator sunglasses
(RB3025 004/58)
Aviators are sunglasses with an oversized teardrop-shaped lens and thin metal frames. This design first appeared in 1936 by Ray Ban for issue to U.S. military aviators. Their popularity with pilots, military and law enforcement personnel in the United States has never wavered. As a fashion statement, models of aviator sunglasses are often made in mirrored, colored, degregated, and wrap-around styles. In addition to pilots, Aviator-style sunglasses gained popularity with young people in the late 1960s and continued to be very popular with only a brief fall in demand during the 1990s.


Wayfarers
First introduced by Ray-Ban, the Wayfarer design popularized since the 1950s by Hollywood celebrities such as James Dean is thought to be the bestselling sunglasses design to date[citation needed].


Teashades

Teashade sunglasses
'Teashades' (sometimes also called "John Lennon glasses" or "Ozzy Glasses", after Ozzy Osbourne') were a type of Psychedelic art wire-rim sunglasses that were often worn, usually for purely aesthetic reasons, by members of the 1960s drug counterculture, as well as by opponents of segregation.[citation needed] Rock stars such as Mick Jagger, John Lennon, Jerry Garcia, Ozzy Osbourne, and Janis Joplin all wore teashades. The original teashade design was made up of medium-sized, perfectly round lenses, supported by pads on the bridge of the nose and a thin wire frame. When teashades became popular in the late 1960s, they were often elaborated; lenses were elaborately colored, mirrored, and degregated, produced in excessively large sizes, and with the wire earpieces exaggerated. A uniquely-colored or darkened glass lens was usually preferred. Modern versions tend to have plastic lenses as do many other sunglasses. Teashades are rare to find in shops today however can be found at many costume websites and different countries.

The term has now fallen into disuse, although references can still be found in literature of the time. Teashades are briefly referenced during a police training seminar in Hunter S. Thompson's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. 'Teashades' also was used to describe glasses worn to hide the effects of marijuana (conjunctival injection) or 'bloodshot' eyes or the effects of opiates such as heroin (pupillary constriction).

The glasses worn by Seraph in the Matrix films are Teashades. Ban Mido (GetBackers) and Basara Nekki (Macross 7) are almost never seen without their purple-lensed teashades. Former professional wrestler Bret Hart is also known for wearing teashades at live and televised appearances during his wrestling career.

Tim Roth also favours teashade sunglasses.




Glacier Glasses
Sunglasses with leather blinders at the sides that protect the eyes by blocking the sun's rays around the edges of the lenses. Typically, these have very dark round lenses. Because they provide extra protection from bright sun and light reflected by snow and ice, they are often used when mountain climbing, or traveling across glaciers or snowfields.


Faded/ Graduated Lenses
The Faded lenses refer to the fade in which sunlight is blocked from ones face. For example there will be more protection from sunlight the higher you look on the lens but the farther one looks down the less protection one gets. The fashion advantage is that one can wear them inside and not fear tripping over something and also allowing the user to see. Wearing sunglasses to nightclubs has become common in recent times, where the faded lens comes in handy.

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Sunglasses

Sunglasses or sun glasses are a visual aid, variously termed spectacles or glasses, which feature lenses that are coloured or darkened to prevent strong light from reaching the eyes. In the early Twentieth century they were also known as sun cheaters (or simply cheaters).

Many people find direct sunlight too bright to be comfortable. During outdoor activities, the human eye can receive more light than usual. Healthcare professionals recommend eye protection whenever outside to protect the eyes from ultraviolet radiation, which can lead to the development of a cataract. Sunglasses have also been associated with celebrities and film actors primarily due to the desire to hide or mask their identity, but this may also be due in part to the fact that film lighting is typically stronger than natural light and uncomfortable to an unprotected eye. Since the 1940s sunglasses have been popular as a fashion accessory, especially on the beach.

History

Precursors
It is said that the Roman emperor Nero liked to watch gladiator fights with emeralds. These, however, appear to have worked rather like mirrors.[1] Flat panes of smoky quartz which offered no corrective powers but did protect the eyes from glare were used in China in the 12th century or possibly earlier. Contemporary documents describe the use of such crystals by judges in Chinese courts to conceal their facial expressions while questioning witnesses.[2]

James Ayscough began experimenting with tinted lenses in spectacles in the mid-18th century. These were not "sunglasses" as such; Ayscough believed blue- or green-tinted glass could correct for specific vision impairments. Protection from the sun's rays was not a concern of his.

Yellow/Amber and brown-tinted spectacles were also a commonly-prescribed item for people with syphilis in the 19th and early 20th centuries because of the sensitivity to light that was one of the symptoms of the disease.


Modern developments
In the early 1900s, the use of sunglasses started to become more widespread, especially among the pioneering stars of silent movies. It is commonly believed that this was to avoid recognition by fans, but the real reason was they often had perennially sore eyes from the powerful arc lights that were needed due to the extremely slow speed film stocks used. The stereotype persisted long after improvements in film quality and the introduction of ultraviolet filters had eliminated this problem. Inexpensive mass-produced sunglasses were introduced to America by Sam Foster in 1929. Foster found a ready market on the beaches of Atlantic City, New Jersey, where he began selling sunglasses under the name Foster Grant from a Woolworth on the Boardwalk.

Sunglasses first became polarized in 1936, when Edwin H. Land began experimenting with making lenses with his patented Polaroid filter.


Uses

Paul Newman wearing sunglasses
Hiding one's eyes has implications in face-to-face communication: It can hide weeping, being one of the signs of mourning, makes eye contact impossible which can be intimidating, like in the stereotype of the guardian of a chain gang as depicted in Cool Hand Luke, or can show detachment, which is considered cool in some circles. Darkened sunglasses of particular shapes may be in vogue as a fashion accessory. Note that normal glasses are very rarely worn without a practical purpose — curiously, they can project an image of uncool nerdiness that sunglasses do not have. The impact on nonverbal communication and the cool image are among the reasons for wearing sunglasses by night or indoors. People may also wear sunglasses to hide dilated or contracted pupils or bloodshot eyes (which would reveal drug use), recent physical abuse (such as a black eye), or to compensate for increased photosensitivity. Fashion trends are another reason for wearing sunglasses, particularly designer sunglasses. Shutter Shades are a prime example of sunglasses worn for fashion rather than functionality due to trends in pop culture.


John Major at Newlands Cricket Ground wearing sunglasses, January 2000.
People with severe visual impairment, such as the blind, often wear sunglasses in order to avoid making others uncomfortable — not seeing eyes may be better than seeing eyes which seem to look in the wrong direction. Those whose eyes have an abnormal appearance (for example due to cataract) or which jerk uncontrollably (nystagmus) may also do so.


[edit] Visual clarity and comfort
Sunglasses can improve visual comfort and visual clarity by protecting the eye from glare.[3] Various types of disposable sunglasses are dispensed to patients after receiving mydriatic eye drops during eye examinations.


Protection

Sunglasses should pass the ANSI Z87.1 requirements and offer UV protection
Excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UV) can cause short-term and long-term ocular problems such as photokeratitis, snow blindness, cataracts, pterygium, and various forms of eye cancer.[4] Medical experts often advise the public on the importance of wearing sunglasses to protect the eyes from UV[4]. In the European Union, a CE mark identifies glasses fulfilling quality regulations. In the preparation for solar eclipses, health authorities often warn against looking at the sun through sunglasses alone.

There is no demonstrated correlation between high prices and increased UV protection. A 1995 study reported that "Expensive brands and polarizing sunglasses do not guarantee optimal UVA protection." [5] The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission has also reported that "[c]onsumers cannot rely on price as an indicator of quality".[6] One survey cited below even found a $6.95 pair of generic glasses with slightly better protection than Salvatore Ferragamo shades.[7]

More recently, high-energy visible light (HEV) has been implicated as a cause of age-related macular degeneration[8][9], and some manufacturers design to block it. Sunglasses may be especially important for children, as their ocular lenses are thought to transmit far more HEV light than adults (lenses "yellow" with age).

Some sunglasses also pass ANSI Z87.1 requirements for basic impact and high impact protection. These are voluntary standards, so not all sunglasses comply, nor are manufacturers required to comply. In the basic impact test, a 1 in (2.54 cm) steel ball is dropped on the lens from 50 in (127 cm). In the high velocity test, a 1/4 in (6.35mm) steel ball is shot at the lens at 150 ft/s (45.72 m/s). In both tests, no part of the lens can touch the eye.


Standards
There are three sunglass standards.[10]

The Australian Standard is AS 1067. The five sunglass ratings under this standard are based on the amount of light they absorb, 0 to 4, with “0” providing some protection from UV radiation and sunglare, and “4” a high level of protection.

The US standard is ANSI Z80.3-1972. According to the ANSI Z80.3-2001 standard, the compliable lens should have a UVB (280 to 315nm) transmittance of no more than one per cent and a UVA (315 to 380nm) transmittance of no more than 0.5 times of the visual light transmittance

The European standard is EN 1836:2005. The four ratings are 0 for insufficient UV protection, 1 for sufficient UV protection, 2 for good UV protection and 3 for full UV protection.

Construction

Lens
The colour of the lens can vary by style, fashion, and purpose, but for general use, green, grey, yellow, or brown is recommended to avoid or minimize color distortion which would be dangerous when, for instance, driving a car. Gray lenses are considered neutral because they do not enhance contrast or distort colors. Brown and green lenses cause some minimal color distortion, but have contrast-enhancing properties. Red lenses are good for medium and lower light conditions because they are good at enhancing contrast, but cause significant color distortion. Orange and yellow lenses have the best contrast enhancement at depth perception but cause color distortion. Yellow lenses are commonly used by golfers and shooters for its contrast enhancement and depth perception properties. Blue or purple lenses offer no real benefits and are mainly cosmetic. With the introduction of office computing, ergonomists can recommend mildly tinted glasses for display operators to increase contrast.[citation needed] Clear lenses are used typically to protect the eyes from impact, debris, dust, or chemicals. Some sunglasses with interchangeable lens have optional clear lenses to protect the eyes during low light or night time activities. Debates exist as to whether "blue blocking" or amber tinted lenses may have a protective effect.[11] Blue blocking sunglasses typically also block some light of other colors to function well in full sunlight. Some low blue glasses are for use inside at night to avoid suppression of the sleep promoting hormone melatonin.[citation needed] They provide enough light so normal evening activities can continue.

Some models have polarized lenses, made of Polaroid polarized plastic sheet, to reduce glare caused by light reflected from polarizing surfaces such as water (see Brewster's angle for how this works) as well as by polarized diffuse sky radiation (skylight). This can be especially useful when fishing, as the ability to see beneath the surface of the water is crucial.

A mirrored coating can also be applied to the lens. This mirrored coating reflects some of the light when it hits the lens before it is transmitted through the lens making it useful in bright conditions. These mirrored coatings can be made any color by the manufacturer for styling and fashion purposes. The color of the mirrored surface is irrelevant to the color of the lens. For example, a gray lens can have a blue mirror coating, and a brown lens can have a silver coating. Sunglasses of this type are sometimes called mirrorshades. A mirror does not get hot in the sunlight and prevents scattering in the lens bulk.

Sunglass lenses are made from either glass or plastic. Plastic lenses are typically made from acrylic, polycarbonate, CR-39 or Polyurethane. Glass lenses have the best optical clarity and scratch resistance, but are heavier than plastic lenses. They can also shatter or break on impact. Plastic lenses are lighter but are more prone to scratching. Plastic offers more resistance to shattering than glass. Polycarbonate plastic lenses are the lightest, and are also almost shatterproof, making them good for impact protection. CR-39 is the most common plastic lens, due to their low weight, high scratch resistance, and low transparency for ultraviolet and infrared radiation.

Any of the above features: color, polarization, gradation, mirroring, and materials can be combined into the lens for a pair of sunglasses. Gradated glasses are darker at the top of the lens where the sky is viewed and transparent at the bottom. Corrective lenses or glasses can be manufactured with either tinting or darkened to serve as sunglasses. An alternative is to use the corrective glasses with a secondary lenses such as oversize sunglasses that fit over the regular glasses, clip-on lens that are placed in front of the glasses, and flip-up glasses which feature a dark lens that can be flipped up when not in use. Photochromic lens gradually darken in bright light.


Frames

This sunglass-eyeshield uses a nylon half-frame and interchangeable lenses
Frames are generally made from plastic, nylon, a metal or metal alloy. Nylon frames are usually used in sports because they are light weight and flexible. They are able to bend slightly and return to their original shape instead of breaking when pressure is applied to them. This flex can also help the glasses grip better on the wearer's face. Metal frames are usually more rigid than nylon frames thus they can be more easily damaged when participating in sporty activities, but this is not to say that they cannot be used for such activities. Because metal frames are more rigid, some models have spring loaded hinges to help them grip the wearer's face better. The end of the ear pieces and the bridge over the nose can be textured or have a rubber or plastic material to hold better. The end of the ear pieces are usually curved so that they wrap around the ear; however, some models have straight ear pieces. Oakley, for example, has straight ear pieces on all their glasses.

Frames can be made to hold the lenses in several different ways. There are three common styles: full frame, half frame, and frameless. Full frame glasses have the frame go all around the lenses. Half frames go around only half the lens, typically the frames attach to the top of the lenses and on the side near the top. Frameless glasses have no frame around the lenses and the ear stems are attached directly to the lenses. There are two styles of frameless glasses: those that have a piece of frame material connecting the two lenses together, and those that are a single lens with ear stems on each side.

Some sports-oriented sunglasses have interchangeable lens options. Lenses can be easily removed and swapped with a different lens, usually a different coloured lens. The purpose of this is to allow the wearer to easily change lenses when light conditions or activities change. The reason for this is because the cost of a set of lenses is less than the cost of a separate pair of glasses and carrying extra lenses is less bulky than carrying multiple pairs of glasses. It also allows easy replacement of a set of lenses if they are damaged. The most common type of sunglasses with interchangeable lenses have a single lens or shield that covers both eyes. Styles that use two lenses also exist, but are less common.

Nose Bridge
Nose bridges allow support between the lens and the face. Nose bridges also prevent pressure marks caused by the weight of the lens or frame on the cheeks. People with large noses may need a low nose bridge on their sunglasses. People with medium noses may need a low or medium nose bridge. People with small noses may need sunglasses with high nose bridges to allow clearance.

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Brooch

A brooch (also known in ancient times as a fibula, and not to be confused with broach) is a decorative jewelry item designed to be attached to garments. It is usually made of metal, often silver or gold but sometimes bronze or some other material. Brooches are frequently decorated with enamel or with gemstones and may be solely for ornament (as in the stomacher) or sometimes serve a practical function as a fastening, perhaps for a cloak.

The earliest known brooches are from the Bronze Age. As fashions in brooches changed rather fast, they are important chronological indicators.

The fibula or fibulae (plural) is an ornamental clasp used by Romans, Greeks and also by Celts and migratory tribes in Europe from the Early Bronze Age. They may have replaced fibulae made of more perishable Neolithic materials, such as bone to as late as 800 AD. Fibulae are useful type-objects: carefully catalogued local typologies, dating and distribution of fibulae can help date finds where neither numismatic nor ceramic materials provide a secure date. Fibulae were shaped somewhat like a large safety pin and were used to hold clothing together. They came in many varieties and held prominent significance for the identity of the wearer, indicating ethnicity (until local costume became Romanized) and class. Elaborately designed fibulae were an important part of Late Antique dress, and simpler ones were part of Roman military equipment.

The same types of fibulae can often be found on either side of the Roman limites, both among "Roman" and "barbarian" populations. The cultural interplay of elite objects designed to show status can be quite complex. For example, Lawrence Nees, Early Medieval Art [1] notes fibulae depicted in ivory diptychs of Stilicho and his entourage:"The type of fibula worn by Stilicho and his son, and by Turcius Secundus, occurs also among metal works of art commonly termed barbarian, as new Germanic figures usurped the symbols of imperial authority. It is likely that this type originated among Celtic groups and came to be adopted as an exotic fashion by Roman aristocrats, becoming 'naturalized' as an important Roman emblem, and then exported".

They were usually made of bronze and sometimes of precious metals and infrequently had encrusted gem stones. Eagle fibula, often worn in pairs, commemorate the worship of the Sun, common among the pagan tribes.

Ancient fibulae are prized items for collectors since they are well preserved in many cases and are not difficult to obtain; divorced from their cultural context, they still present a fascinating array of shapes and decor.

In some local regions of the Midwestern United States, a brooch is used for the purpose of keeping the hair up. Often to keep their hair out of there face.

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Bangle

Bangles (Hindi: Kangan) (Tamil: Valayal) (Telugu: Gaaju) or Chudi are ornaments worn mainly by women. Indian women, especially Hindus, wear them after their marriage signifying the matrimony.

Some men wear a single bangle on their arms or wrists called as kada. In Sikhism, The father of a Sikh bride will give the groom a gold ring, a kada (steel or iron bangle), and a mohra.

They are circular in shape, and, unlike bracelets, are not flexible. The word is derived from Hindi bungri (glass).

Bangles are part of traditional Indian jewelry. In India, bangles are usually worn in pairs, one or more on each arm, and a single bangle is rarely sold. They are made of numerous precious as well as non-precious materials such as gold, silver, platinum, glass, wood, ferrous metals, plastic, etc. Most Indian women prefer wearing either gold or glass bangles or both in combination. Bangles made from plastic are slowly replacing those made by glass, but the ones made of glass are still preferred at traditional functions such as marriages and at festivals.

Gold bangles are most popular with Indian women. They range from plain and simple to extremely artistic and intricate. They are often studded with precious and semi-precious stones such as diamonds, gems and pearls.

Sets of more expensive bangles that are made from higher quality contents of gold and silver make a substantial jingling sound. In the case of cheap, imitation jewelry, these tend to make a tinny sound (in contrast with a more substantial sound) when jingled.

Normally, a bangle as worn by people around the world is simply an inflexible piece of jewelry worn around the wrist. However, in many cultures, especially in the Arabian Peninsula and in South Asia, bangles have evolved into various types in which different ones are used at different occasions.

Glass bangles are mostly produced in only one Indian city called Firozabad in North India.

In India, Hyderabad has a historic market for bangles named the Laad Bazaar.

In Pakistan, glass bangles are almost all produced in Hyderabad, Pakistan


History
Bangles—made from shell, copper, bronze, gold, agate, chalcedony etc.—have been excavated from multiple archaeological sites throughout India.[2] A figurine of a dancing girl—wearing bangles on her left arm— has been excavated from Mohenjo-daro (2600 BC).[3] Other early examples of bangles in India include copper samples from the excavations at Mahurjhari—soon followed by the decorated bangles belonging to the Mauryan empire (322–185 BCE), and the gold bangle samples from the historic site of Taxila (6th century BCE).[2] Decorated shell bangles have also been excavated from multiple Mauryan sites.[2] Other features included copper rivets and gold-leaf inlay in some cases.[2]


Types of bangle
There are various types of bangles available on the market. Primary distinguishing factor for these is the material that is used to make the bangles. This may vary anything from glass to metal to lac and even rubber or plastic. Traditionally bangles were made of various types of metals like gold, silver, bronze etc. Bangles made from gold are considered the most expensive ones.

Another factor that adds to the price of the bangles is the artifacts or the work done further on the metal. This includes embroidery or small glass pieces or paintings or even small hangings that are attached to the bangles. The rareness of a color and its unique value also increase the value. Bangles made from lac are one of the oldest ones and among the brittle category too. Lac is clay like material which in molded in hot kilns-like places to make these bangles. Among the recent entrants are the rubber bangles that are worn more like a wrist band by youngsters while the plastic ones are there to add the trendy look.

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Napoleon Diamond Necklace

The Napoleon Diamond Necklace is a diamond necklace commissioned by Napoleon I of France c. 1811–1812. It is currently on display in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., United States.

Description
The Napoleon Diamond Necklace consists of 28 mine cut diamonds set into a single thread, with a fringe of alternating pendeloque and briolettes diamond cuts. The five pear-shaped pendoloques are each mounted below a small brilliant cut diamond. The four ovaline pendeloques are mounted above designs which incorporate 23 brilliant cut diamonds each. Each briolette mounting is set with 12 rose cut diamonds.

While the gems of the Napoleon Diamond Necklace have never been professionally graded by a lapidary (as they have never been removed from their mountings), infrared spectroscopic analysis of the diamonds has shown that they are primarily Type Ia. However, 13 of the 52 largest diamonds in the necklace are of the rare Type IIa variety. A number of the Type Ia diamonds show indications of sulfide crystal imperfections.

History

Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma wearing the Napoleon Diamond Necklace and the Marie Louise Diadem
In 1810, Napoleon I of France divorced the Empress Joséphine, as she proved to be incapable of producing an heir.[4] He re-married two months later to Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria. Within a year, Marie Louise bore a son. To celebrate, in June 1811 Napoleon I commissioned the Napoleon Diamond Necklace from the Parisian jewellery firm Nitot et Fils, at a cost of 376,274 French francs.[3] This sum was the equivalent of the Empress's entire annual household budget.[5] There are several contemporary portraits of Marie Louise wearing the Napoleon Diamond Necklace, including a number by the artists François Gérardand Giovan Battista Borghesi. Several years later, in 1815, Napoleon was exiled to Saint Helena. Marie Louise returned to Austria with the necklace, and owned it until her death.


Inheritance and sales
Upon the death of Marie Louise in 1847, the necklace passed to Archduchess Sophie of Austria, the wife of her nephew Archduke Franz Karl of Austria. Two diamonds were removed from the necklace to shorten it, at the request of Princess Sophie. These diamonds were fitted to a pair of earrings, the location of which is now unknown.[5] Following the death of Sophie in 1872, the Napoleon Diamond Necklace was jointly inherited by her three surviving sons, Archdukes Karl Ludwig, Ludwig Viktor, and Franz Joseph of Austria. Karl Ludwig later acquired his brothers' stakes in the necklace, and upon his death in 1914 passed it to his third wife, Maria Theresa of Portugal.[3]

At the start of the Great Depression in 1929, Maria Theresa engaged two people presenting themselves as "Colonel Townsend" and "Princess Baronti" to sell the necklace for US$450,000. Realising that the current economic conditions would make it almost impossible to reach the asking price, the pair began offers at $100,000, signing on Archduke Leopold of Habsburg, the destitute grandnephew of Maria Theresa, to vouch for the necklace's authenticity. Deals were negotiated with the jewelers Harry Winston and Harry Berenson, but eventually the pair sold the necklace to David Michel of New York for $60,000, of which the pair claimed $53,730 as expenses. When informed of the sale, Maria Theresa took the matter to court, eventually resulting in the recovery of the necklace, the jailing of Archduke Leopold, and the flight of Townsend and Baronti from the authorities.[5]

After resolving the incident, Maria Theresa held the necklace until her death in 1944. Four years later, the Habsburg family sold it to the French industrialist Paul-Louis Weiller. In 1960, Weiller sold the Napoleon Diamond Necklace to Harry Winston, who believed that the historical value of the piece would make it more valuable than if the stones were removed and resold individually, as was common practice at the time.[9] As such, he kept it intact, reselling it the same year to Marjorie Merriweather Post. Post donated the necklace to the Smithsonian Institution in 1962, and it has since remained on display at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., United States.

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